About two years ago, we compared and contrasted different approaches to risk managing equity exposure; including fixed income, risk parity, managed futures, tactical equity, and options-based strategies.
Given the recent market events as the world navigates through the COVID-19 crisis, we revisit this analysis to see how these strategies would have fared over the past two years.
We find that all eight strategies studied have continued to successfully reduce risk, with two of the previously underperforming options-based strategies now jumping to the forefront of the pack.
Over time, performance of the risk management strategies still varies significantly both relative to the S&P 500 and compared to the other strategies. Generally, risk-managed strategies tend to behave like insurance, underperforming on the upside and outperforming on the downside.
Diversifying your diversifiers by blending a number of complementary risk-managed strategies together – even at random – can be a powerful method of improving long-term outcomes.
“The primary requirement of historical time is that inly one of the possible alternatives coming at you from the future can be actualized in the present where it will flow into the pat and remain forever after unalterable. You may sometimes have “another chance” and be able to make a different choice in some later present, but this can in no way change the choice you did in fact make in the first instance.”
– Dr. William G. Pollard, Prof. of Physics, Manhattan Project
23 trading days.
In a little over a month, the S&P 500 dropped nearly 35% from all-time highs in a sell-off that was one of the fastest in history. Many investors experienced the largest drawdowns their portfolios had seen since the Financial Crisis.
While the market currently sits in a drawdown closer to 25% (as of the time of this writing), the future remains could take any path. Following the relative calm in the market over the preceding year, we are now living through a historic time with the uncertainty and severity of the growing COVID-19 pandemic and its far-reaching ramifications.
However, as a firm that focuses on managing risk, we are used to not knowing the answers.
In the summer of 2018, we published a piece entitled The State of Risk Management where we examined the historical trade-offs in terms of returns during market downturns versus returns during calm market environments of a variety of risk management methods.
Since that time, especially with the benefit of hindsight, one might argue that risk management was unnecessary until this past month. While the S&P 500 experienced a 19% drawdown in Q4 of 2018, it quickly recovered and went on to post a gain of 32% in 2019, rewarding those who stayed the course (or, better yet, bought the dip).
Source: Tiingo. Returns are gross of all management fees, transaction fees, and taxes, but net of underlying fund fees. Total return series assumes the reinvestment of all distributions. Data through 3/27/2020.
With the future poised to follow a variety of uncertain paths, we think it is a prudent time to check in on some of the more popular ways to manage risk and see how they are handling the current events.
The Updated Historical Track Record
For risk management, we examine eight strategies that roughly fit into four categories:
Options Strategies: equity collar3, protective put4, and put-write5,6
Equity Strategies: long-only defensive equity that blends a minimum volatility strategy7, a quality strategy8, and a dividend growth strategy9 in equal weights
Trend-Following Strategies: managed futures10 and tactical equity11
Index data was used prior to fund inception when necessary, and the common inception data is December 1997.
The following charts show the return and risk characteristics of the strategies over the entire historical period. Previously, we had used maximum drawdown as a measure of risk but have now switched to using the ulcer index to quantify both the duration and severity of drawdowns.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
Relative to when we previously presented these statistics (as of July 2018), the most notable changes are that the 95-100 Collar index and Risk Parity have improved and that Managed Futures moved into the top-performing spot up from the middle of the pack. Trend Equity dropped slightly in the rankings, which is partially attributable to our switching over to using the Newfound Trend Equity Index, which includes exposure to small- and mid-cap companies and invests in cash rather than corporate bonds for the defensive position.
Six of the eight strategies still exhibit strong risk-adjusted performance relative to the S&P over the entire time period.
But as we also showed in 2018, the dispersion in strategy performance is significant.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
This chart also highlights the current trailing one-year performance for each strategy as of 3/27/2020.
Both the 95-110 Collar and the 5% Put Protection indices are in the top 10% of their historical one-year returns, with the put protection index forging new maximum territory. Trend equity and defensive equity have exhibited returns closer to their median levels, while managed futures, strategic diversification with bonds, and risk parity have had returns above their medians.
When we examine the current market environment, this makes sense. Many options were relatively cheap (i.e. implied volatility was low) heading into and early in February, and the option rollover date was close to when the drawdown began (positive timing luck). Equity trends were also very strong coming out of 2019.
With the sharp reversal in equity prices, option strategies provided a strong static hedge that any investors had been paying premiums for through the previous years of bull market returns.
Trend equity strategies were slower to act as trends took time to reverse before cash was introduced into the portfolio, and managed futures were eventually able to capitalize on short positions and diversification once these trends were established.
Zooming in more granularly, we can see the trade-offs between the hedging performance of each strategy in down markets and the premiums paid through negative returns in up-markets. This chart shows the returns relative to the S&P 500 (SPY). When the lines are increasing (decreasing), the hedge is outperforming (underperforming). A flatter line during periods of calm markets indicates lower premiums if we think of these strategies as insurance policies.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
All eight strategies have provided hedging in both Q4 2018 and the current downturn. The -95-100 Collar- provided some of the lowest premiums. -Trend Equity- also provided low premiums but had a slower time getting back in the market after the hedging period in 2018.
-Managed Futures- have provided some of the best hedging through both down periods but had the highest premium during the strong market of 2019.
With the continued dispersion in performance, especially with the “new” market crisis, this highlights the importance of diversification.
Diversifying Your Diversifiers
Not every risk management strategy will perfectly hedge every downturn while also having a low cost during up markets.
We see the power of diversifying your diversifiers when we test simple equal-weight blends of the risk management strategies. In our 2018 update, we had used an equal weight blend of all eight strategies and a blend of the six strategies that had historical Sharpe ratios above the S&P 500. This latter selection was admittedly biased with hindsight. The two excluded strategies – the 95-110 Collar and the 5% Put Protection indices – were some of the best performing over the period from August 2018 to March 2020!
Our own biases notwithstanding, we still include both blends for comparison.
Both blends have higher Sharpe ratios than 6 of the 8 individual strategies and higher excess return to ulcer index ratios than all of the eight individual strategies.
This is a very powerful result, indicating that naïve diversification is nearly as good as being able to pick the best individual strategies with perfect foresight.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
But holding eight – or even six – strategies can be daunting, especially for more aggressive investors who may only want to allocate a small portion of their portfolio to a risk management sleeve.
How much diversification is enough?
The following charts show the distribution of risk-adjusted returns from randomly choosing any number of the 8 strategies and holding them in equal weight.
As is to be expected, the cost of choosing the “wrong” blend of strategies decreases as the number of strategies held increases. The potential benefits initially increase and then back off as the luck of choosing the “right” strategy blend is reduced through holding a greater number of strategies.
Both charts show the distributions converging for the single choice for an 8-strategy portfolio.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
Even holding 3 or 4 of the eight risk management strategies, chosen at random, leads to robust results, in general, with narrowed bands in the distribution (e.g. 25th to 75th percentiles).
Blending strategies from each of the different categories – static diversification, options, equity, and trend-following – can further reduce concentration risk verses selection at random and ensure that a variety of risk factors within the hedging strategies (e.g. interest rates from bonds, volatility from options, beta from equity, and whipsaw from trend-following) are mitigated.
Conclusion
We’ve said it many times before: There is no holy grail when it comes to risk management. While finding the perfect hedge that beats all others in every environment is enticing, it is impossible via the simple fact that risk cannot be destroyed, only transformed.
In an uncertain world where we cannot predict exactly what the next crisis will look like – or even what the current crisis will look like after today – diversifying your diversifiers by combining a number of complementary risk-managed strategies may be a prudent course of action.
We believe that this type of balanced approach has the potential to deliver compelling results over a full market cycle while managing the idiosyncratic risk of any one manager or strategy.
Diversification can also help to increase the odds of an investor sticking with their risk management plan as the short-term performance lows won’t be quite as low as they would be with a single strategy (conversely, the highs won’t be as high either).
Developing a plan and sticking with it is the most important first step in risk management. It is obviously desirable to keep premiums in strong markets as low as possible while having efficient hedges in down markets, but simple diversification can go a long way to provide a robust results.
Risk management is, by definition, required to be in place before risks are realized. Even when the market is currently down, risks in the future are still present. Therefore, we must periodically ask ourselves, “What risks are we willing to bear?”
One potential path has been locked into history, but the next time potential risks become reality – and they inevitably will – we must be comfortable with our answer.
During the week of February 23rd, the S&P 500 fell more than 10%.
After a prolonged bullish period in equities, this tumultuous decline caused many trend-following signals to turn negative.
As we would expect, short-term signals across a variety of models turned negative. However, we also saw that price-minus-moving-average models turned negative across a broad horizon of lookbacks where the same was not true for other models.
In this brief research note, we aim to explain why common trend-following models are actually mathematically linked to one another and differ mainly in how they place weight on recent versus prior price changes.
We find that price-minus-moving-average models place the greatest weight on the most recent price changes, whereas models like time-series momentum place equal-weight across their lookback horizon.
What this table intends to capture is the percentage of trend signals that are on for a given model and lookback horizon (i.e. speed) on U.S. equities. The point we were trying to establish was that despite a very bearish week, trend models remained largely mixed. For frequent readers of our commentaries, it should come as no surprise that we were attempting to highlight the potential specification risks of selecting just one trend model to implement with (especially when coupled with timing luck!).
But there is a potentially interesting second lesson to learn here which is a bit more academic. Why does it look like the price-minus (i.e. price-minus-moving-average) models turned off, the time series momentum models partially turned off, and the cross-over (i.e. dual-moving-average-cross) signals largely remained positive?
While this note will be short, it will be somewhat technical. Therefore, we’ll spoil the ending: these signals are all mathematically linked.
They can all be decomposed into a weighted average of prior log-returns and the primary difference between the signals is the weighting concentration. The price-minus model front-weights, the time-series model equal weights, and the cross-over model tends to back-weight (largely dependent upon the length of the two moving averages). Thus, we would expect a price-minus model to react more quickly to large, recent changes.
If you want the gist of the results, just jump to the section The Weight of Prior Evidence, which provides graphical evidence of these weighting schemes.
We will begin by decomposing a time-series momentum value, which we will define as:
We will begin with a simple substitution:
Which implies that:
Simply put, time-series momentum puts equal weight on all the past price changes1 that occur.
Decomposing Dual-Moving-Average-Crossover
We define the dual-moving-average-crossover as:
We assume m is less than n (i.e. the first moving average is “faster” than the second). Then, re-writing:
Here, we can make a cheeky transformation where we add and subtract the current price, Pt:
What we find is that the double-moving-average-crossover value is the difference in two weighted averages of time-series momentum values.
Decomposing Price-Minus-Moving-Average
This decomposition is trivial given the dual-moving-average-crossover. Simply,
The Weight of Prior Evidence
We have now shown that these decompositions are all mathematically related. Just as importantly, we have shown that all three methods are simply re-weighting schemes of prior price changes. To gain a sense of how past returns are weighted to generate a current signal, we can plot normalized weightings for different hypothetical models.
For TSMOM, we can easily see that shorter lookback models apply more weight on less data and therefore are likely to react faster to recent price changes.
PMAC models apply weight in a linear, declining fashion, with the most weight applied to the most recent price changes. What is interesting is that PMAC(50) puts far more weight on recent prices changes than the TSMOM(50) model does. For equivalent lookback periods, then, we would expect PMAC to react much more quickly. This is precisely why we saw PMAC models turn off in the most recent sell-off when other models did not: they are much more front-weighted.
DMAC models create a hump-shaped weighting profile, with increasing weight applied up until the length of the shorter lookback period, and then descending weight thereafter. If we wanted to, we could even create a back-weighted model, as we have with the DMAC(150, 200) example. In practice, it is common to see that m is approximately equal to n/4 (e.g. DMAC(50, 200)). Such a model underweights the most recent information relative to slightly less recent information.
Conclusion
In this brief research note, we demonstrated that common trend-following signals – namely time-series momentum, price-minus-moving-average, and dual-moving-average-crossover – are mathematically linked to one another. We find that prior price changes are the building blocks of each signal, with the primary differences being how those prior price changes are weighted.
Time-series momentum signals equally-weight prior price changes; price-minus-moving-average models tend to forward-weight prior price changes; and dual-moving-average-crossovers create a hump-like weighting function. The choice of which model to employ, then, expresses a view as to the relative importance we want to place on recent versus past price changes.
These results align with the trend signal changes seen over the past week during the rapid sell-off in the S&P 500. Price-minus-moving-average models appeared to turn negative much faster than time-series momentum or dual-moving-average-crossover signals.
By decomposing these models into their most basic and shared form, we again highlight the potential specification risks that can arise from electing to employ just one model. This is particularly true if an investor selects just one of these models without realizing the implicit choice they have made about the relative importance they would like to place on recent versus past returns.
We will begin with a simple substitution:
Which implies that:
One Hedge to Rule Them All
By Nathan Faber
On March 30, 2020
In Craftsmanship, Portfolio Construction, Risk Management, Weekly Commentary
This post is available as a PDF download here.
Summary
“The primary requirement of historical time is that inly one of the possible alternatives coming at you from the future can be actualized in the present where it will flow into the pat and remain forever after unalterable. You may sometimes have “another chance” and be able to make a different choice in some later present, but this can in no way change the choice you did in fact make in the first instance.”
– Dr. William G. Pollard, Prof. of Physics, Manhattan Project
23 trading days.
In a little over a month, the S&P 500 dropped nearly 35% from all-time highs in a sell-off that was one of the fastest in history. Many investors experienced the largest drawdowns their portfolios had seen since the Financial Crisis.
While the market currently sits in a drawdown closer to 25% (as of the time of this writing), the future remains could take any path. Following the relative calm in the market over the preceding year, we are now living through a historic time with the uncertainty and severity of the growing COVID-19 pandemic and its far-reaching ramifications.
However, as a firm that focuses on managing risk, we are used to not knowing the answers.
In the summer of 2018, we published a piece entitled The State of Risk Management where we examined the historical trade-offs in terms of returns during market downturns versus returns during calm market environments of a variety of risk management methods.
Since that time, especially with the benefit of hindsight, one might argue that risk management was unnecessary until this past month. While the S&P 500 experienced a 19% drawdown in Q4 of 2018, it quickly recovered and went on to post a gain of 32% in 2019, rewarding those who stayed the course (or, better yet, bought the dip).
With the future poised to follow a variety of uncertain paths, we think it is a prudent time to check in on some of the more popular ways to manage risk and see how they are handling the current events.
The Updated Historical Track Record
For risk management, we examine eight strategies that roughly fit into four categories:
Index data was used prior to fund inception when necessary, and the common inception data is December 1997.
The following charts show the return and risk characteristics of the strategies over the entire historical period. Previously, we had used maximum drawdown as a measure of risk but have now switched to using the ulcer index to quantify both the duration and severity of drawdowns.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
Relative to when we previously presented these statistics (as of July 2018), the most notable changes are that the 95-100 Collar index and Risk Parity have improved and that Managed Futures moved into the top-performing spot up from the middle of the pack. Trend Equity dropped slightly in the rankings, which is partially attributable to our switching over to using the Newfound Trend Equity Index, which includes exposure to small- and mid-cap companies and invests in cash rather than corporate bonds for the defensive position.
Six of the eight strategies still exhibit strong risk-adjusted performance relative to the S&P over the entire time period.
But as we also showed in 2018, the dispersion in strategy performance is significant.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is from December 1997 to 3/27/2020.
This chart also highlights the current trailing one-year performance for each strategy as of 3/27/2020.
Both the 95-110 Collar and the 5% Put Protection indices are in the top 10% of their historical one-year returns, with the put protection index forging new maximum territory. Trend equity and defensive equity have exhibited returns closer to their median levels, while managed futures, strategic diversification with bonds, and risk parity have had returns above their medians.
When we examine the current market environment, this makes sense. Many options were relatively cheap (i.e. implied volatility was low) heading into and early in February, and the option rollover date was close to when the drawdown began (positive timing luck). Equity trends were also very strong coming out of 2019.
With the sharp reversal in equity prices, option strategies provided a strong static hedge that any investors had been paying premiums for through the previous years of bull market returns.
Trend equity strategies were slower to act as trends took time to reverse before cash was introduced into the portfolio, and managed futures were eventually able to capitalize on short positions and diversification once these trends were established.
Zooming in more granularly, we can see the trade-offs between the hedging performance of each strategy in down markets and the premiums paid through negative returns in up-markets. This chart shows the returns relative to the S&P 500 (SPY). When the lines are increasing (decreasing), the hedge is outperforming (underperforming). A flatter line during periods of calm markets indicates lower premiums if we think of these strategies as insurance policies.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
All eight strategies have provided hedging in both Q4 2018 and the current downturn. The -95-100 Collar- provided some of the lowest premiums. -Trend Equity- also provided low premiums but had a slower time getting back in the market after the hedging period in 2018.
-Managed Futures- have provided some of the best hedging through both down periods but had the highest premium during the strong market of 2019.
With the continued dispersion in performance, especially with the “new” market crisis, this highlights the importance of diversification.
Diversifying Your Diversifiers
Not every risk management strategy will perfectly hedge every downturn while also having a low cost during up markets.
We see the power of diversifying your diversifiers when we test simple equal-weight blends of the risk management strategies. In our 2018 update, we had used an equal weight blend of all eight strategies and a blend of the six strategies that had historical Sharpe ratios above the S&P 500. This latter selection was admittedly biased with hindsight. The two excluded strategies – the 95-110 Collar and the 5% Put Protection indices – were some of the best performing over the period from August 2018 to March 2020!
Our own biases notwithstanding, we still include both blends for comparison.
Both blends have higher Sharpe ratios than 6 of the 8 individual strategies and higher excess return to ulcer index ratios than all of the eight individual strategies.
This is a very powerful result, indicating that naïve diversification is nearly as good as being able to pick the best individual strategies with perfect foresight.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
But holding eight – or even six – strategies can be daunting, especially for more aggressive investors who may only want to allocate a small portion of their portfolio to a risk management sleeve.
How much diversification is enough?
The following charts show the distribution of risk-adjusted returns from randomly choosing any number of the 8 strategies and holding them in equal weight.
As is to be expected, the cost of choosing the “wrong” blend of strategies decreases as the number of strategies held increases. The potential benefits initially increase and then back off as the luck of choosing the “right” strategy blend is reduced through holding a greater number of strategies.
Both charts show the distributions converging for the single choice for an 8-strategy portfolio.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
Data Source: CBOE, Tiingo, S&P. Calculations by Newfound Research. Past performance does not guarantee future results. All returns are hypothetical index returns. You cannot invest directly in an index and unmanaged index returns do not reflect any fees, expenses, sales charges, or trading expenses. Index returns include the reinvestment of dividends. No index is meant to measure any strategy that is or ever has been managed by Newfound Research. Data is through 3/27/2020.
Even holding 3 or 4 of the eight risk management strategies, chosen at random, leads to robust results, in general, with narrowed bands in the distribution (e.g. 25th to 75th percentiles).
Blending strategies from each of the different categories – static diversification, options, equity, and trend-following – can further reduce concentration risk verses selection at random and ensure that a variety of risk factors within the hedging strategies (e.g. interest rates from bonds, volatility from options, beta from equity, and whipsaw from trend-following) are mitigated.
Conclusion
We’ve said it many times before: There is no holy grail when it comes to risk management. While finding the perfect hedge that beats all others in every environment is enticing, it is impossible via the simple fact that risk cannot be destroyed, only transformed.
In an uncertain world where we cannot predict exactly what the next crisis will look like – or even what the current crisis will look like after today – diversifying your diversifiers by combining a number of complementary risk-managed strategies may be a prudent course of action.
We believe that this type of balanced approach has the potential to deliver compelling results over a full market cycle while managing the idiosyncratic risk of any one manager or strategy.
Diversification can also help to increase the odds of an investor sticking with their risk management plan as the short-term performance lows won’t be quite as low as they would be with a single strategy (conversely, the highs won’t be as high either).
Developing a plan and sticking with it is the most important first step in risk management. It is obviously desirable to keep premiums in strong markets as low as possible while having efficient hedges in down markets, but simple diversification can go a long way to provide a robust results.
Risk management is, by definition, required to be in place before risks are realized. Even when the market is currently down, risks in the future are still present. Therefore, we must periodically ask ourselves, “What risks are we willing to bear?”
One potential path has been locked into history, but the next time potential risks become reality – and they inevitably will – we must be comfortable with our answer.